Anankastic character and anankastic personality disorder
Anankastic character and anankastic personality disorder: What Freud saw in the anankastic individual
Anankastic character and anankastic personality disorder: What Freud saw in the anankastic individual
DESCRIPTION: Anankastic character and anankastic personality disorder: characteristics, causes and Freud’s interpretation. Why order acts as a safeguard against aggression and why a meritocratic society rewards this type of personality.
Anankastic character: Why order, doubt and control go hand in hand
Anyone who types ‘obsessive’ into a search engine usually wants to know whether they, or someone close to them, has an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Freud framed the question differently. In 1908, he described a person who performs no compulsive acts yet is dominated by order, thrift and doubt. This text traces the concept of the anankastic character from Freud through Abraham to modern classifications, and asks why a society that demands achievement rewards precisely this type of person.
Three traits and a suspicion
In the short essay ‘Character and Anal Eroticism’ from 1908, Freud observes a triad of characteristics in certain patients. They are strikingly tidy, thrifty and obstinate. For them, tidiness means more than just cleanliness; it encompasses conscientiousness and reliability in small matters. Their thriftiness can border on miserliness. Their obstinacy can turn into defiance.
Freud develops a theory from this observation. He notes that these people struggled for a long time during their childhood with toilet training and derived an unusual pleasure from bowel movements, for example from holding them in. This early pleasure, he posits, later develops into character traits. The child who does not want to let go becomes the adult who does not want to spend. The equation of money with faeces, which Freud explores in greater depth in other works, stems from this line of thought. It is so widespread in fairy tales, proverbs and dreams that it scarcely comes across as a claim.
Today, the physical derivation is hardly tenable. The observation of the triad has proved to be tenacious. Karl Abraham expanded it in 1921 into the concept of the anal character, and it reappears in descriptions of the anankastic personality right up to the present-day handbooks.
How to recognise an anankastic character
The characteristics can be described in the language of classification and in Freud’s own terms. The DSM-5 lists eight criteria for obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), four of which must be met: preoccupation with details, rules and lists; perfectionism that interferes with task completion; excessive devotion to work at the expense of leisure and relationships; rigidity regarding moral and ethical issues; an inability to discard worthless objects; reluctance to delegate; stinginess towards oneself and others; and inflexibility and obstinacy.
In everyday life, the behaviour is less conspicuous than the list might suggest. Those affected organise their shopping list by aisle, cannot leave holiday plans open-ended, and perceive others’ tardiness as a personal slight. They take a long time to make decisions because every choice rules out an alternative, and they are reluctant to delegate because nobody carries out the task the way they believe it should be done. According to the DSM-5, the disorder begins in early adulthood, though the predispositions date back further.
How obsessional neurosis shapes character
The anankastic character must be distinguished from obsessional neurosis. In the case of obsessional neurosis, Freud describes symptoms: obsessive thoughts, ceremonies, rituals and checking behaviours. The anankastic character is the way in which a person lives, even without symptoms in the strict sense. According to Freud, the two are linked because the same defence mechanism is at work.
In ‘Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices’ (1907), Freud compares the private ceremonial behaviour of the obsessional patient with religious rituals. He sees in both the renunciation of drives and the defence against an unconscious sense of guilt. He describes obsessional neurosis as an individual form of religiosity, and religion as a universal form of obsessional neurosis. The crux lies in the circularity: the ritual is intended to ward off misfortune, yet with every repetition it confirms that misfortune is imminent.
In the case of the ‘Rat Man’ (1909), Freud illustrates how this works. The young lawyer Ernst Lanzer is tormented by the idea that his father and his lover might suffer a cruel punishment in which rats play a part. His father had been dead for years at this point, yet this did nothing to alleviate his fear. Lanzer devises countermeasures, which in turn require further countermeasures. Freud recognises an ambivalence underlying this mental construct: the man loves his father and hates him at the same time. The hatred must not be acknowledged; consequently, love becomes a duty and duty becomes torment.
The defence mechanisms, which Freud systematised in ‘Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety’ (1926) and Anna Freud in 1936, fit this picture. In reaction formation, an impulse is transformed into its opposite: the desire to destroy something becomes a fear of damaging it. In isolation, a thought is separated from its emotional charge. In undoing, one action is intended to be reversed by a second. Finally, for Freud, doubt is an expression of ambivalence: anyone who loves and hates at the same time cannot make a definitive decision.
Order keeps aggression in check
Anyone who regards the triad as merely a list of characteristics overlooks its function. Order, thrift and obstinacy bind aggression. In obstinacy, the defiance of the child who refuses to let go is preserved. Thrift refuses to let go and thus refuses the relationship. Order keeps the world in a state in which nothing is allowed to happen that might unleash anger.
Control protects the ego from its own impulses. Herein lies the dilemma of the anankastic personality: they do not recognise their aggression as their own, because it has been transformed into virtues. They call themselves conscientious whilst feeling afraid; they call themselves thrifty whilst denying themselves many things; they call themselves thorough whilst being unable to let go. Those around him perceive him as a wall. He sees himself as someone who is making an effort.
The pleasure derived from control is part of this. As Freud shows, the compulsive behaviour satisfies a desire. The completion of the ritual, the immaculately kept account, the exhaustive list provide a pleasure that remains inconspicuous in everyday life. Herein lies the link to masochism: the anankastic personality lives under a strict superego that drives and punishes them, and they find in self-discipline a satisfaction that they would not call such.
How does an anankastic personality develop?
Freud sought the cause in the early struggle over cleanliness and control. Abraham extended this line of thought to the period when the child learns to give and to withhold. Contemporary research cites temperament, upbringing and genetic factors, and regards the development as the result of multiple influences. From a psychoanalytical perspective, one question remains that no questionnaire asks: in what kind of relationship did a child have to learn that anger is dangerous and that order offers protection? In the life stories described by analysts, a home often emerges where achievement brought affection, emotions caused unrest, and mistakes had consequences.
The type rewarded by a meritocratic society
Here, the concept takes on a social dimension. In The Protestant Ethic and the ‘Spirit’ of Capitalism (1904/05), Max Weber described the career-oriented individual who brings asceticism into everyday life, treats time as capital and seeks in success a sign of being chosen. In Life Against Death (1959), Norman O. Brown interpreted the monetary economy, drawing on Freud, as a sublimation of anal pleasure. One need not subscribe to either of these theories to see that the anankastic personality thrives in the world of work. They are punctual, reliable and meticulous. They work longer hours than required and act as their own supervisory authority.
The figures on perfectionism bear this out. In 2019, in the journal Psychological Bulletin, Thomas Curran and Andrew Hill analysed 164 samples comprising 41,641 students from the USA, Canada and the UK, collected between 1989 and 2016. All three dimensions of perfectionism increased over the period: self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed. The sharpest rise was seen in socially prescribed perfectionism, that is, the impression that others expect flawless performance. The study covers students rather than a cross-section of the population, and perfectionism is not synonymous with anankastic behaviour. However, it shows that the demands with which the anankastic character identifies have become a general expectation.
The reward system holds until it collapses. The anankastic personality receives recognition for what binds them. As soon as the order is no longer sufficient to contain the aggression, it manifests itself differently: as exhaustion, as rumination, as an obsessive thought that arises against one’s own will. In this sense, obsessive-compulsive disorder is the breakdown of a defence mechanism that has functioned for a long time.
What the classifications have made of the concept
Psychiatric manuals have translated Freud’s concept into a list of characteristics. The DSM-5 lists Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder with criteria such as perfectionism that hinders task completion, excessive devotion to work, rigidity and stinginess. The manual states that the prevalence in the general population is approximately two to eight per cent. The ICD-10 refers to anankastic personality disorder (F60.5). The ICD-11 does not list individual personality disorders and describes anankastia as a trait characterised by perfectionism and emotional constriction.
In the DSM-5, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder belongs to Cluster C, alongside anxious-avoidant and dependent personality disorders. In total, the DSM-5 recognises ten personality disorders. The ICD-10 lists eight specific disorders (F60.0 to F60.7), including paranoid, schizoid, dissocial, emotionally unstable, histrionic, anankastic, anxious and dependent personality disorders. ‘Anankastic’ is derived from the Greek word anánke and means compulsion or necessity.
This translation introduces a measure of quantifiability. It loses sight of the question that interested Freud: what is the purpose of it all? A list of criteria states that a person clings to rules. It does not say which impulse is kept in check by the rules. The theory of defence mechanisms, developed by Freud and Anna Freud, answers precisely this question, and it is more appropriate to the anankastic personality than any enumeration of its characteristics.
Anankastic character and obsessive-compulsive disorder
The two terms are often conflated. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD, ICD-10 F42) is defined by obsessions and compulsions, which the person affected experiences as tormenting and pointless. The anankastic personality, on the other hand, regards their order as reasonable, and those around them suffer more than they do. A person can have both, and many people with OCD do not have an anankastic personality. The distinction is therefore important because it raises two different questions. In the case of OCD, one asks about the symptom and its function. In the case of an anankastic personality, one asks about the way of life.
English tends to use ‘obsessive’ for two different things: the thoughts that impose themselves (obsessions) and the character trait (anankastic). Once the two are blurred, any thoroughness is read as a symptom, or the character aspect is overlooked and only the disorder is seen. The person who has lived by their own order for years and does not know what it protects them from is accounted for in neither reading.
Treatment: When therapy is advisable
People with an anankastic personality rarely seek treatment because of their orderliness. They seek help because of exhaustion, depression, relationship conflicts or physical complaints, or because a partner can no longer tolerate their rigidity. The psychological distress arises from the consequences of this control. Anankastic personality disorder is treated psychotherapeutically, using depth psychology, psychoanalysis or behavioural therapy. Medication may be considered for comorbid conditions such as depression. Psychoanalytic work focuses on understanding the function of control, bringing to light the aggression underlying the need for order, and learning to tolerate decisions that are not perfectly certain. The prognosis improves as soon as those affected recognise their rigidity as a problem.
The cost of control
According to Freud’s interpretation, order serves a function: it keeps fear of one’s own impulses at bay, and this function comes at a cost. The anankastic personality pays this price with spontaneity, with closeness and with the ability to stand by a decision. In return, it gains reliability, prestige and the feeling that nothing will go wrong. A society that regards control as a virtue readily accepts this trade-off, and only realises its cost when the defence mechanism fails.
Key Takeaways
• In 1908, Freud described a triad of traits: tidy, thrifty, and obstinate.
• Abraham expanded on these in 1921 to form the concept of the anal character. Whilst the physical derivation is now considered outdated, the observation of the triad has endured.
• According to Freud, orderliness, thrift and obstinacy serve to contain aggression which the individual does not recognise as their own.
• The anankastic personality perceives their orderliness as reasonable, whilst the person with OCD experiences the condition as tormenting and meaningless.
• The DSM-5 and ICD classify this type as obsessive-compulsive (DSM-5) or anankastic (ICD-10) personality disorder. The lists of criteria describe what a person does, but leave open the question of why they do it.
• A meritocratic society rewards this type of person until the defence mechanism fails and the aggression resurfaces as exhaustion, rumination or obsessive thoughts.
• Those affected usually seek therapy because of exhaustion, depression or relationship conflicts.
Sources and Further Reading
· Freud, S. (1907): Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices.
· Freud, S. (1908): Character and Anal Eroticism.
· Freud, S. (1909): Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis.
· Freud, S. (1926): Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety.
· Freud, A. (1936): The Ego and the Defence Mechanisms.
· Abraham, K. (1921): Additions to the Theory of the Anal Character.
· Weber, M. (1904/05): The Protestant Ethic and the ‘Spirit’ of Capitalism.
· Brown, N. O. (1959): Life Against Death.
· Curran, T. and Hill, A. P. (2019): Perfectionism is increasing over time. Psychological Bulletin 145(4), 410–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000138
· American Psychiatric Association (2013): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition.
· WHO (2019): ICD-11, 6D11.5 Anankastia.
Related
DESCRIPTION: Anankastic character and anankastic personality disorder: characteristics, causes and Freud’s interpretation. Why order acts as a safeguard against aggression and why a meritocratic society rewards this type of personality.
Anankastic character: Why order, doubt and control go hand in hand
Anyone who types ‘obsessive’ into a search engine usually wants to know whether they, or someone close to them, has an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Freud framed the question differently. In 1908, he described a person who performs no compulsive acts yet is dominated by order, thrift and doubt. This text traces the concept of the anankastic character from Freud through Abraham to modern classifications, and asks why a society that demands achievement rewards precisely this type of person.
Three traits and a suspicion
In the short essay ‘Character and Anal Eroticism’ from 1908, Freud observes a triad of characteristics in certain patients. They are strikingly tidy, thrifty and obstinate. For them, tidiness means more than just cleanliness; it encompasses conscientiousness and reliability in small matters. Their thriftiness can border on miserliness. Their obstinacy can turn into defiance.
Freud develops a theory from this observation. He notes that these people struggled for a long time during their childhood with toilet training and derived an unusual pleasure from bowel movements, for example from holding them in. This early pleasure, he posits, later develops into character traits. The child who does not want to let go becomes the adult who does not want to spend. The equation of money with faeces, which Freud explores in greater depth in other works, stems from this line of thought. It is so widespread in fairy tales, proverbs and dreams that it scarcely comes across as a claim.
Today, the physical derivation is hardly tenable. The observation of the triad has proved to be tenacious. Karl Abraham expanded it in 1921 into the concept of the anal character, and it reappears in descriptions of the anankastic personality right up to the present-day handbooks.
How to recognise an anankastic character
The characteristics can be described in the language of classification and in Freud’s own terms. The DSM-5 lists eight criteria for obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD), four of which must be met: preoccupation with details, rules and lists; perfectionism that interferes with task completion; excessive devotion to work at the expense of leisure and relationships; rigidity regarding moral and ethical issues; an inability to discard worthless objects; reluctance to delegate; stinginess towards oneself and others; and inflexibility and obstinacy.
In everyday life, the behaviour is less conspicuous than the list might suggest. Those affected organise their shopping list by aisle, cannot leave holiday plans open-ended, and perceive others’ tardiness as a personal slight. They take a long time to make decisions because every choice rules out an alternative, and they are reluctant to delegate because nobody carries out the task the way they believe it should be done. According to the DSM-5, the disorder begins in early adulthood, though the predispositions date back further.
How obsessional neurosis shapes character
The anankastic character must be distinguished from obsessional neurosis. In the case of obsessional neurosis, Freud describes symptoms: obsessive thoughts, ceremonies, rituals and checking behaviours. The anankastic character is the way in which a person lives, even without symptoms in the strict sense. According to Freud, the two are linked because the same defence mechanism is at work.
In ‘Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices’ (1907), Freud compares the private ceremonial behaviour of the obsessional patient with religious rituals. He sees in both the renunciation of drives and the defence against an unconscious sense of guilt. He describes obsessional neurosis as an individual form of religiosity, and religion as a universal form of obsessional neurosis. The crux lies in the circularity: the ritual is intended to ward off misfortune, yet with every repetition it confirms that misfortune is imminent.
In the case of the ‘Rat Man’ (1909), Freud illustrates how this works. The young lawyer Ernst Lanzer is tormented by the idea that his father and his lover might suffer a cruel punishment in which rats play a part. His father had been dead for years at this point, yet this did nothing to alleviate his fear. Lanzer devises countermeasures, which in turn require further countermeasures. Freud recognises an ambivalence underlying this mental construct: the man loves his father and hates him at the same time. The hatred must not be acknowledged; consequently, love becomes a duty and duty becomes torment.
The defence mechanisms, which Freud systematised in ‘Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety’ (1926) and Anna Freud in 1936, fit this picture. In reaction formation, an impulse is transformed into its opposite: the desire to destroy something becomes a fear of damaging it. In isolation, a thought is separated from its emotional charge. In undoing, one action is intended to be reversed by a second. Finally, for Freud, doubt is an expression of ambivalence: anyone who loves and hates at the same time cannot make a definitive decision.
Order keeps aggression in check
Anyone who regards the triad as merely a list of characteristics overlooks its function. Order, thrift and obstinacy bind aggression. In obstinacy, the defiance of the child who refuses to let go is preserved. Thrift refuses to let go and thus refuses the relationship. Order keeps the world in a state in which nothing is allowed to happen that might unleash anger.
Control protects the ego from its own impulses. Herein lies the dilemma of the anankastic personality: they do not recognise their aggression as their own, because it has been transformed into virtues. They call themselves conscientious whilst feeling afraid; they call themselves thrifty whilst denying themselves many things; they call themselves thorough whilst being unable to let go. Those around him perceive him as a wall. He sees himself as someone who is making an effort.
The pleasure derived from control is part of this. As Freud shows, the compulsive behaviour satisfies a desire. The completion of the ritual, the immaculately kept account, the exhaustive list provide a pleasure that remains inconspicuous in everyday life. Herein lies the link to masochism: the anankastic personality lives under a strict superego that drives and punishes them, and they find in self-discipline a satisfaction that they would not call such.
How does an anankastic personality develop?
Freud sought the cause in the early struggle over cleanliness and control. Abraham extended this line of thought to the period when the child learns to give and to withhold. Contemporary research cites temperament, upbringing and genetic factors, and regards the development as the result of multiple influences. From a psychoanalytical perspective, one question remains that no questionnaire asks: in what kind of relationship did a child have to learn that anger is dangerous and that order offers protection? In the life stories described by analysts, a home often emerges where achievement brought affection, emotions caused unrest, and mistakes had consequences.
The type rewarded by a meritocratic society
Here, the concept takes on a social dimension. In The Protestant Ethic and the ‘Spirit’ of Capitalism (1904/05), Max Weber described the career-oriented individual who brings asceticism into everyday life, treats time as capital and seeks in success a sign of being chosen. In Life Against Death (1959), Norman O. Brown interpreted the monetary economy, drawing on Freud, as a sublimation of anal pleasure. One need not subscribe to either of these theories to see that the anankastic personality thrives in the world of work. They are punctual, reliable and meticulous. They work longer hours than required and act as their own supervisory authority.
The figures on perfectionism bear this out. In 2019, in the journal Psychological Bulletin, Thomas Curran and Andrew Hill analysed 164 samples comprising 41,641 students from the USA, Canada and the UK, collected between 1989 and 2016. All three dimensions of perfectionism increased over the period: self-oriented, other-oriented and socially prescribed. The sharpest rise was seen in socially prescribed perfectionism, that is, the impression that others expect flawless performance. The study covers students rather than a cross-section of the population, and perfectionism is not synonymous with anankastic behaviour. However, it shows that the demands with which the anankastic character identifies have become a general expectation.
The reward system holds until it collapses. The anankastic personality receives recognition for what binds them. As soon as the order is no longer sufficient to contain the aggression, it manifests itself differently: as exhaustion, as rumination, as an obsessive thought that arises against one’s own will. In this sense, obsessive-compulsive disorder is the breakdown of a defence mechanism that has functioned for a long time.
What the classifications have made of the concept
Psychiatric manuals have translated Freud’s concept into a list of characteristics. The DSM-5 lists Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder with criteria such as perfectionism that hinders task completion, excessive devotion to work, rigidity and stinginess. The manual states that the prevalence in the general population is approximately two to eight per cent. The ICD-10 refers to anankastic personality disorder (F60.5). The ICD-11 does not list individual personality disorders and describes anankastia as a trait characterised by perfectionism and emotional constriction.
In the DSM-5, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder belongs to Cluster C, alongside anxious-avoidant and dependent personality disorders. In total, the DSM-5 recognises ten personality disorders. The ICD-10 lists eight specific disorders (F60.0 to F60.7), including paranoid, schizoid, dissocial, emotionally unstable, histrionic, anankastic, anxious and dependent personality disorders. ‘Anankastic’ is derived from the Greek word anánke and means compulsion or necessity.
This translation introduces a measure of quantifiability. It loses sight of the question that interested Freud: what is the purpose of it all? A list of criteria states that a person clings to rules. It does not say which impulse is kept in check by the rules. The theory of defence mechanisms, developed by Freud and Anna Freud, answers precisely this question, and it is more appropriate to the anankastic personality than any enumeration of its characteristics.
Anankastic character and obsessive-compulsive disorder
The two terms are often conflated. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD, ICD-10 F42) is defined by obsessions and compulsions, which the person affected experiences as tormenting and pointless. The anankastic personality, on the other hand, regards their order as reasonable, and those around them suffer more than they do. A person can have both, and many people with OCD do not have an anankastic personality. The distinction is therefore important because it raises two different questions. In the case of OCD, one asks about the symptom and its function. In the case of an anankastic personality, one asks about the way of life.
English tends to use ‘obsessive’ for two different things: the thoughts that impose themselves (obsessions) and the character trait (anankastic). Once the two are blurred, any thoroughness is read as a symptom, or the character aspect is overlooked and only the disorder is seen. The person who has lived by their own order for years and does not know what it protects them from is accounted for in neither reading.
Treatment: When therapy is advisable
People with an anankastic personality rarely seek treatment because of their orderliness. They seek help because of exhaustion, depression, relationship conflicts or physical complaints, or because a partner can no longer tolerate their rigidity. The psychological distress arises from the consequences of this control. Anankastic personality disorder is treated psychotherapeutically, using depth psychology, psychoanalysis or behavioural therapy. Medication may be considered for comorbid conditions such as depression. Psychoanalytic work focuses on understanding the function of control, bringing to light the aggression underlying the need for order, and learning to tolerate decisions that are not perfectly certain. The prognosis improves as soon as those affected recognise their rigidity as a problem.
The cost of control
According to Freud’s interpretation, order serves a function: it keeps fear of one’s own impulses at bay, and this function comes at a cost. The anankastic personality pays this price with spontaneity, with closeness and with the ability to stand by a decision. In return, it gains reliability, prestige and the feeling that nothing will go wrong. A society that regards control as a virtue readily accepts this trade-off, and only realises its cost when the defence mechanism fails.
Key Takeaways
• In 1908, Freud described a triad of traits: tidy, thrifty, and obstinate.
• Abraham expanded on these in 1921 to form the concept of the anal character. Whilst the physical derivation is now considered outdated, the observation of the triad has endured.
• According to Freud, orderliness, thrift and obstinacy serve to contain aggression which the individual does not recognise as their own.
• The anankastic personality perceives their orderliness as reasonable, whilst the person with OCD experiences the condition as tormenting and meaningless.
• The DSM-5 and ICD classify this type as obsessive-compulsive (DSM-5) or anankastic (ICD-10) personality disorder. The lists of criteria describe what a person does, but leave open the question of why they do it.
• A meritocratic society rewards this type of person until the defence mechanism fails and the aggression resurfaces as exhaustion, rumination or obsessive thoughts.
• Those affected usually seek therapy because of exhaustion, depression or relationship conflicts.
Sources and Further Reading
· Freud, S. (1907): Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices.
· Freud, S. (1908): Character and Anal Eroticism.
· Freud, S. (1909): Notes upon a Case of Obsessional Neurosis.
· Freud, S. (1926): Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety.
· Freud, A. (1936): The Ego and the Defence Mechanisms.
· Abraham, K. (1921): Additions to the Theory of the Anal Character.
· Weber, M. (1904/05): The Protestant Ethic and the ‘Spirit’ of Capitalism.
· Brown, N. O. (1959): Life Against Death.
· Curran, T. and Hill, A. P. (2019): Perfectionism is increasing over time. Psychological Bulletin 145(4), 410–429. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000138
· American Psychiatric Association (2013): Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition.
· WHO (2019): ICD-11, 6D11.5 Anankastia.
Related
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Möchten Sie informiert werden, wenn ich einen neuen Blogbeitrag veröffentliche? Tragen Sie sich gern hier ein.
Klicken Sie auf „Kostenlos abonnieren“, wenn Sie meine Datenschutzerklärung gelesen und akzeptiert haben. Ihre Einwilligung können Sie jederzeit widerrufen.