Understanding Jacques Lacan: The mirror stage, desire and the linguistically structured unconscious

Psychoanalysis has fundamentally changed our understanding of human nature. Jacques Lacan, one of the most influential psychoanalysts of the 20th century, has opened up new perspectives on the self, desire and the unconscious with his structural psychoanalysis. In this article, you will learn how Lacan's conception shapes our understanding of language, the self, and identity.

What it's about:

• Key concepts of psychoanalysis explained

• The relevance of Lacan's theories for the present and for practice

• Lacan's concepts of structural psychoanalysis.

Who was Jacques Lacan and what shaped his psychoanalysis?

Jacques Lacan, born in Paris in 1901, was a psychiatrist, psychoanalyst and a key figure in French psychoanalysis. His work combined the theories of Sigmund Freud with structuralism, linguistics and philosophy. The essay ‘Function and Field of Speech and Language’ marks a decisive turning point in the development of psychoanalytic theory.

Lacan's aim was to ‘return to Freud’ by reinterpreting his work. He emphasised that the unconscious is structured like a language. His texts, though complex, follow a clear logic of linguistic mediation.

What is the mirror stage in Lacan's theory?

The so-called mirror stage describes a phase in early childhood when the child recognises itself in the mirror for the first time. This image conveys an apparent wholeness that the child does not feel in its experience.

According to Lacan, the ego function is formed in the mirror stage by means of an external, imaginary image. This identification remains fundamental to the subject's understanding of itself and continues to have an effect in later life, as Lacan's concept of identification in the mirror stage describes. It shows that the ego is not a natural unit, but a symbolically mediated construction, which is examined in Lacan's analyses from 1966.

How does language structure the unconscious?

Lacan formulated: ‘The unconscious is structured like a language.’ So that he meant that psychic processes are not chaotic, but regular and linguistically mediated. Symbols, metaphors and displacements form the structure of the unconscious.

In line with Ferdinand de Saussure and Claude Lévi-Strauss, Lacan integrated linguistic approaches into psychoanalysis. Accordingly, the subject is embedded in the order of language and can only understand itself through linguistic structures.

The three registers: the symbolic, the imaginary and the real

Lacan's entire thinking is based on a tripartite division of the human psyche into three registers: the symbolic, the imaginary and the real. They are inseparably intertwined and form the foundation of his psychoanalysis.

The Symbolic – The Order of Language and the Law

For Lacan, the symbolic refers to the level of language, social rules and the symbolic order. It structures the unconscious and enables the emergence of the subject. The symbolic operates through laws, prohibitions, cultural norms and family structures.

Example: Language itself is part of the symbolic. When a child learns the name of the father (the ‘law of the father’), it is introduced to the symbolic order. The child realises that not everything is allowed. There are rules.

The imaginary – the order of the image and identification

The imaginary realm is characterised by images, reflections and illusionary wholes. It begins with the so-called mirror stage: the child recognises itself in the mirror and identifies with this image. This is the origin of the first, deceptive sense of self.

Example: the child sees itself in the mirror, believes itself to be whole and coordinated – even though it feels fragmented inside. This ideal image later influences how the child perceives itself and others.

The Real – That Which Cannot Be Symbolised

The Real is the realm that eludes all linguistic comprehension. It is that which finds no place in the Symbolic or the Imaginary – the unrepresentable that presents itself as a rupture or traumatic event. Example: an accident, a sudden panic attack or a missing word – the real disrupts the order of meaning. It is not the ‘actual’, but rather that which disturbs reality.

These three registers are constantly interacting: the symbolic forms the subject, the imaginary gives it an image – and the real interrupts both.

What does ‘desire’ mean in Lacanian psychoanalysis?

Desire is at the centre of Lacan's theory. It is not identical with a particular object, but is a constant striving that is never fully satisfied. The ‘small a object’ (objet petit a) symbolises this unreachable core of desire.

Desire is mediated by the Other and is linguistically coded, as Lacan's concept describes it. Every desire contains a reference back to the symbolic order and to what is missing from it. Thus, the subject always remains in the field of tension between what it is and what it desires.

What does Lacan mean by the ‘law of the father’?

For Lacan, the ‘law of the father’ stands for the symbolic order into which the child is introduced through language. It separates the child from the symbiotic relationship with the mother and enables the formation of an independent subject.

This law does not operate as a concrete father figure, but as a linguistic-symbolic structure. It enables difference, separation and identification within the symbolic order.

The year 1981

In 1981, Jacques Lacan died. With his death, an era of psychoanalysis came to an end. The ‘École Freudienne de Paris’ that he founded had already disintegrated the previous year. Nevertheless, his thinking lives on in the ‘Ecole de la Cause freudienne’ and other psychoanalytic schools.

Lacan's influence can still be felt in the theory and practice of psychoanalysis today. His seminars, texts and concepts such as the object klein a or the mirror stage are studied internationally.

What significance does the mirror image have for the subject?

The image in the mirror seems like a promised totality. But the child learns that this image is not itself, but an external representation. The resulting identification remains fragile.

Lacan describes this difference between self-image and self-perception as the ‘peril of the subject’. Accordingly, the formation of the subject is always also an experience of alienation.

How does Lacan criticise ego psychology?

Lacan opposed ego psychology, as advocated by Loewenstein, for example. According to him, it neglected the unconscious in favour of a functional concept of the ego.

For Lacan, the ego is not a stable entity, but an imaginary construction that is formed through language and symbolic structures. Therapy in this case is not about strengthening the ego, but about revealing the symbolic processes.

What does Lacan mean by ‘returning to Freud’?

Lacan's ‘return to Freud’ is a rereading that began in 1936 and continues to influence psychoanalysis today. He took up central concepts such as the Oedipus complex, desire and dream interpretation and reinterpreted them in a structuralist way. Language becomes the key to understanding the unconscious.

This return is not a form of nostalgia, but an innovative approach to Freud's work, which becomes clear in Lacan's analyses from 1966. It not only shaped psychoanalysis in France, but also its connections to philosophy, literature and cultural theory.

What is meant by structural psychoanalysis?

Lacan's conception of structural psychoanalysis combines classical psychoanalytic theory with structuralist thinking. The subject is understood as a product of symbolic and linguistic structures.

The registers of the symbolic, imaginary and real offer a differentiated model of the psyche. This theory was applied in the clinic, in philosophy and in cultural criticism.

What is the relevance of Lacan's psychoanalysis today?

Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis remains relevant in the 21st century. In times when language, identity and the self are being renegotiated, it provides important insights.

Concepts such as the ‘small a object’ or the theory of desire help to understand psychodynamic processes. His theory combines individual psychodynamics with social structures, thus offering a holistic approach to the psyche.

Key points at a glance:

• Jacques Lacan linked psychoanalysis with language and structuralism.

• The mirror stage describes the formation of the ego through an imagined image.

• Language structures the unconscious and so the subject, an aspect that Émile Lacan examined in detail.

• Desire is always mediated by the ‘object small a’.

• The ‘law of the father’ brings the subject into the symbolic order.

• Criticism of ego psychology: the ego is not a stable unit.

• ‘Returning to Freud’ means a structuralist rereading.

• Structural psychoanalysis connects individual experience with linguistic structure.

• Lacan's thinking continues to have an impact on theory, practice and society today, particularly through the work of Émile Roudinesco.

Frequently asked questions about Lacan's psychoanalysis (Q&A)

Who was Jacques Lacan? Jacques Lacan was a French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst born in Paris in 1901. He combined classical psychoanalysis with modern language and structural theories. What is the subject in Lacan? The subject is not an autonomous ego, but a being divided by language, determined by the unconscious. It is always anchored in a lack. What is the unconscious? According to Lacan, the unconscious is structured like a language. It does not work in a chaotic way, but follows rules, comparable to grammar, metaphors and displacements. What does ‘the unconscious is structured like a language’ mean? This famous sentence means that mental processes take place in linguistic form – the unconscious ‘speaks’ through symbols, displacements and repressions. What is the significance of the symbolic in Lacan's work? The symbolic is the realm of language, law, social norms and culture. It forms the foundation of the psychoanalytic structure of the subject. In the symbolic, we find rules, prohibitions and the order of kinship – it is the order that regulates and shapes the subject from the outside. What is the imaginary? The imaginary refers to the order of the pictorial, of identification and reflection. It arises in the mirror stage, when the child recognises itself as a whole in the mirror image. This order shapes the relationship to one's own ego and to others – shaped by illusions, ideals and misunderstandings. What is real? The real is that which eludes all symbolisation. It is beyond language and imagination. It is the intangible that manifests itself in traumas, states of anxiety or sudden outbursts of the uncommunicable – it is the rupture in the fabric of meaning. What is the mirror stage? The mirror stage describes the phase in which a child recognises itself in the mirror for the first time. This is how a sense of self develops, based on an idealised but ultimately deceptive image. What does ‘small a object’ mean? It is the unattainable object of desire, a placeholder for what is missing in the symbolic field. It drives our desire but always remains out of reach. Why is desire so central? Because it constitutes the subject. It is not easily satisfied, but constantly circulates – around something that is missing, but can never be fully attained. What is the Big Other? The Big Other is the instance of the symbolic order – the law, language, social structure that transcends and at the same time determines the subject. What does Lacan mean by the ‘law of the father’? It symbolises the separation of the child from the mother and the introduction to the symbolic order. The father does not represent a real person, but a linguistic law. What does castration mean in Lacanian terms? It is not a biological fact, but symbolises the subject's realisation that it is not complete – a lack that drives it to desire. What does Lacan mean by ‘returning to Freud’? Lacan reread Freud through the lens of language and structure. He introduced and further developed concepts such as the symbolic, the imaginary and the real. How does Lacan differ from Freud? Lacan radicalised Freud's ideas. While Freud placed more emphasis on the ego and drive theories, Lacan shifted the focus of psychoanalysis to language and desire. How does Lacan criticise ego psychology? Lacan did not see the ego as a stable entity, but rather as an imaginary formation. He opposed schools of psychoanalysis that sought to strengthen the ego as a goal of therapy. What is structural psychoanalysis? Lacan's approach combines psychoanalysis with structuralism. The subject is understood as linguistically determined. The three registers – the symbolic, the imaginary and the real – organise the psyche. What is the goal of psychoanalysis according to Lacan? Not adaptation or healing, but a change in the relationship between the subject and their desires – a symbolic reorientation. Why is there no sexual relationship according to Lacan? Because there is no symbolic formula that relates both sexes harmoniously. The relationship is always characterised by misunderstandings and fantasies.