Bonobos and the Theory of Mind – a challenge to the human claim to uniqueness What does bonobo behaviour reveal about our own thinking? This question is the focus of this article on the development of the Theory of Mind. The so-called Theory of Mind – the ability to ascribe mental states such as knowledge, belief and intention to others – was long considered an exclusively human skill. However, current research suggests that bonobos also possess some form of this ability. Anyone interested in psychology, animal cognition or the development of social intelligence will find exciting insights and thought-provoking ideas here that challenge traditional assumptions. What it's about: How much does human thinking differ from that of our animal relatives in terms of the development of theory of mind? This question is the focus of this article. The so-called theory of mind (ToM) – the ability to ascribe mental states such as knowledge, beliefs or intentions to others – was long thought to be an exclusively human skill. However, recent studies with bonobos are now challenging this assumption. They show that great apes also appear to have an astonishing degree of mental and social differentiation. If you are interested in psychology, animal behaviour and the development of social intelligence, you will find exciting insights into current research here. What does ‘theory of mind’ mean in psychology? The theory of mind describes the ability to recognise and take into account mental states such as beliefs, desires and intentions in others. In psychology, it is considered the basis for complex social interaction. The term was coined in the 1970s and gained particular importance from 1983 onwards, mainly due to studies by Heinz Wimmer and Josef Perner. The research provided an understanding of how people begin to ascribe a belief to others from a certain age – a key step in the development of mental perspective-taking. Why is Theory of Mind relevant for social relationships? Without this ability, many interpersonal interactions would be inconceivable: empathy, irony, targeted assistance or even the avoidance of misunderstandings presuppose that we recognise what our counterpart knows or does not know. Studies in developmental psychology show that children begin to put themselves in other people's shoes and to contextualise actions in a social context from around the age of three. This is an important prerequisite for successful social communication and social skills. How does Theory of Mind develop in childhood? The development of a theory of mind begins in infancy. Even babies show the first precursors. By the age of three or four, children understand that other people might have different beliefs – even if they are objectively false. Researchers have shown that attributing mental states – that is, knowledge, assumptions and intentions – is a complex, developing cognitive skill. Their findings became the basis for further theories of cognitive and affective tom, which distinguish between emotional understanding and logical conclusion. What do classic experiments on theory of mind show? A classic of developmental psychology is the ‘chocolate experiment’ by Heinz Wimmer and Josef Perner from 1983: a character hides a chocolate that is moved around in their absence. If you ask the child where the figure will look, you can tell from the answer whether he or she is already able to distinguish between his or her own knowledge and that of the figure. Experts call this phenomenon ‘beliefs about beliefs’. What does ‘false belief’ mean in this context? A false belief is the assumption that something is true when it is not, objectively speaking. Understanding this discrepancy is a complex mental task. The ability to recognise and take into account false beliefs in others has been investigated in many studies, including by Leslie and Uta Frith in the context of autism. Especially in children with developmental spectrum disorders, it is clear how demanding this form of perspective taking is. It therefore plays an important role in therapeutic practice. The study by Wimmer and Perner, mentioned above, published in the Journal of Developmental Psychology, showed that children under the age of four have great difficulty in attributing a false belief to others. These studies laid the foundation for the distinction between cognitive perspective taking (rational-logical understanding) and emotional perspective taking (empathy). Both aspects are fundamental to social interaction and successful communication. What role does Theory of Mind play in autism? Children with autism show noticeable differences in classic Theory of Mind tests. Baron-Cohen's studies show that recognising the intentions and desires of other people is particularly difficult. Therefore, tools have been developed to measure these abilities in a differentiated way. These tests show that autistic children undergo a different development of mental perspective taking. What do brain researchers say about the theory of mind? Modern imaging techniques show that certain areas of the brain are particularly active when performing tasks involving mental perspective taking. These include the frontal lobe (medial prefrontal cortex) and the transition area between the temporal and parietal lobes. These regions process complex mental states and enable the comparison of one's own knowledge with foreign perspectives. Brain research thus provides central insights for psychological research and practice. What do new experiments with bonobos show about their cognitive abilities? Modern studies show that bonobos mentally represent what others know or do not know in cooperative tests. When a human is not informed about the hiding place of a treat, bonobos point to the correct location more often than when the human is informed. This ability to take another's perspective is significant. The bonobos demonstrate mental abilities that were previously attributed only to humans. Such results also broaden our understanding of animal psychology. How do great apes differ in their Theory of Mind? Not all great apes show the same level of this ability. While bonobos are particularly sensitive to the emotions of others, chimpanzees perform better in competitive situations. These differences in Theory of Mind suggest different evolutionary strategies. Other studies suggest that children and bonobos behave similarly in certain tests. However, it remains controversial whether animals actually recognise convictions or only behavioural patterns. This ambiguity is the subject of further research What does all this mean for our self-image? The discovery that bonobos have a form of mental perspective-taking challenges long-held notions of human uniqueness. If animals also have an understanding of inner states, concepts such as intelligence and thinking ability must be rethought. There is no clear dividing line between human and animal thinking – a thesis that is increasingly supported by recent studies. An overview of the most important findings Theory of Mind is the ability to ascribe beliefs, knowledge and intentions to others. In psychology, it is considered the basis of social competence and interaction. Children develop this ability from the age of three. Bonobos show an understanding of false belief that was previously attributed only to humans. Neuroscience shows specific brain areas that are activated during theory of mind processes. Children with autism show altered Theory of Mind development. Discovery in animal research challenges human uniqueness. Further research in developmental psychology and comparative cognition is needed. Frequently asked questions about Theory of Mind What is Theory of Mind? Theory of Mind refers to the ability to put oneself in another's shoes and recognise their thoughts, beliefs, desires or intentions. This ability is fundamental for social interaction, communication and empathy. Is Theory of Mind the same as empathy? No, but the two concepts are closely related. Theory of Mind refers to understanding the mental states of others, while empathy also encompasses emotional compassion. Both contribute to social competence. Who coined the term Theory of Mind? The term was introduced by David Premack and Guy Woodruff in 1978. Their paper ‘Does the chimpanzee have a sense of mental states?’ is considered the starting point for the scientific study of this concept. Why is Theory of Mind so important? This ability is crucial for understanding social situations, for successful communication and cooperation. In psychotherapy, it plays a key role in recognising relationship dynamics and self-reflection. What role does Theory of Mind play in psychotherapy? In psychotherapeutic practice, the concept helps to recognise social misunderstandings, promote a change of perspective and strengthen emotional intelligence – especially in disorders such as autism or personality disorders. When do children develop Theory of Mind? Children begin to show a basic ability to take on other perspectives from around the age of three. From this age onwards, they can understand that other people believe or know things that differ from their own knowledge. The classic experiment ‘Maxi and the Chocolate Bar’ illustrates this developmental step. Do people with autism have a theory of mind? People on the autism spectrum often have a different take on this ability. They have difficulties in correctly assessing the beliefs and intentions of others. Tests help to identify individual differences. What is the relevance of Theory of Mind for understanding autism? Children with autism often show particular abnormalities in tests of the ability to grasp the thoughts of others. Research by Wellman and Förstl shows how our understanding of mental states develops over the course of childhood. Baron-Cohen suggests that distortions can occur particularly when it comes to assessing the intentions and desires of other people. Tools such as advanced tests for perspective-taking can be used to examine these abilities in a targeted way. The results contribute to differentiated diagnostics and individual therapeutic support for children with autism. Do great apes differ in their Theory of Mind abilities? Yes, there are differences between the species. While bonobos show a particularly strong reaction to the feelings of other individuals, chimpanzees display more pronounced strategies in competition-based tests. The differences in understanding the thoughts of others indicate species-specific mental priorities. Comparative studies such as that conducted by Senju and others show interesting parallels between bonobos and children. Nevertheless, it remains controversial whether animals actually grasp mental states such as beliefs or merely react to behavioural patterns. What is Theory of Mind in artificial intelligence (AI)? In the field of artificial intelligence, Theory of Mind refers to the replication of human thought processes. An AI with this ability would model the mental states of others – a theoretical concept that has not yet been fully realised.